Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are precision oncology biologics that link a targeting monoclonal antibody to a potent cytotoxic payload via a chemical linker. Their multi-step, hazardous manufacturing process has made specialist ADC CDMO manufacturing one of the fastest-growing and most technically demanding segments in pharmaceutical outsourcing — and a critical strategic priority for both large pharma and emerging biotech sponsors.
The global ADC contract manufacturing market reached an estimated USD 11.08 billion in 2026 and is projected to expand to approximately USD 29.65 billion by 2035, at a CAGR of 11.56%, according to Towards Healthcare (2026).
The market is expanding steadily, fueled by rising oncology pipelines growing outsourcing of complex biologics, the need for specialized conjugation capabilities, and increasing investments in scalable, compliant manufacturing infrastructure worldwide.
Few vantage points on this market are more instructive than those of senior leaders inside specialist CDMOs. Campbell Bunce, Chief Scientific Officer at Abzena — a CDMO with manufacturing sites in San Diego and Bristol, Pennsylvania — captures the moment well. Speaking on the PharmaSource podcast, he described the trajectory of ADCs and next-generation bioconjugates as one that has fundamentally reshaped the manufacturing landscape.
“Twenty years ago, who knew that ADCs and next-generation bioconjugates were going to be so exciting, so successful?”
— Campbell Bunce, Chief Scientific Officer, Abzena
That success is now placing acute pressure on available manufacturing capacity. Three macro trends are reshaping the ADC CDMO landscape heading into 2026:
- Pipeline maturity and commercial pressure: More than 200 ADC candidates are in active clinical development, targeting over 50 antigens, with 41 assets already in Phase III. This translates directly into sustained pressure on GMP conjugation capacity, driving earlier outsourcing decisions and longer-term capacity reservation agreements.
- Capacity consolidation and integration: Major CDMOs are investing at scale in end-to-end ADC infrastructure — integrating antibody production, linker-payload synthesis, bioconjugation, and aseptic fill-finish under a single quality system — to capture the integrated-partner preference of large pharma sponsors.
- Geographic reshaping and US on-shoring: North America accounted for approximately 42%-45% of the ADC CDMO market in 2025. Geopolitical pressure to on-shore pharmaceutical manufacturing is intensifying domestic demand, particularly for US-based conjugation capacity. As Bunce noted of Abzena’s US positioning: there are not many manufacturers of ADCs in the US, making domestic ADC CDMO capacity a genuinely scarce resource.
What are Antibody-Drug Conjugates?
An antibody-drug conjugate is a targeted biopharmaceutical built from three components: a monoclonal antibody that identifies and binds to a tumor-specific antigen, a highly potent cytotoxic payload that kills the target cell, and a chemical linker that controls payload delivery. Manufacturing all three components in a coordinated, GMP-compliant process — while managing the extreme hazard of cytotoxic payloads — is the core challenge that drives outsourcing to specialist CDMOs.
At their core, ADCs consist of three primary components:
1. Monoclonal antibody: This serves as the targeting mechanism, designed to recognise and bind to specific antigens expressed on the surface of cancer cells.
2. Cytotoxic payload: This is a potent small molecule drug, often too toxic for systemic administration on its own, which is responsible for killing the cancer cells once internalised.
3. Linker: This chemical structure connects the antibody to the cytotoxic payload, playing a crucial role in the stability of the ADC in circulation and the controlled release of the payload once inside the target cell.
The seamless integration of these components results in a ‘magic bullet’ approach to cancer treatment, aiming to overcome the limitations of traditional chemotherapy by enhancing efficacy and reducing systemic toxicity.
The antibody component (most commonly IgG1 or IgG4) is produced via mammalian cell culture, then conjugated to the payload through the linker in a tightly controlled chemical step. The drug-to-antibody ratio (DAR) — the average number of payload molecules per antibody — is a critical quality attribute governing both efficacy and toxicity. Achieving a highly stable and uniform DAR is one of the defining technical challenges in ADC manufacturing and a core differentiator for specialist CDMOs.
Bunce describes the DAR stability problem directly in the context of Abzena’s proprietary ThioBridge™ conjugation platform, developed specifically to address one of the sector’s most persistent quality challenges:
“With ADCs, there’s a big issue of stability in vivo and off-target toxicity. Using the expertise within the business, the team looked at how they could overcome that and developed ThioBridge™. We generate a highly stable, highly uniform drug-to-antibody ratio form of the ADC. It’s scalable, and we’ve seen it perform better in vivo.”— Campbell Bunce, CSO, Abzena
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ADC payloads are among the most hazardous active pharmaceutical ingredients in pharmaceutical manufacturing, with occupational exposure limits for compounds such as auristatins, maytansinoids, and camptothecin derivatives falling as low as 1 ng/m³. This extreme potency demands purpose-built containment infrastructure — negative-pressure isolators, dedicated hot suites, engineering controls, and continuous environmental monitoring — well beyond standard HPAPI requirements.
ADCs are predominantly developed for oncology. Nineteen products have received regulatory approval globally as of 2026, with approved indications spanning breast cancer, bladder cancer, cervical cancer, acute myeloid leukemia, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and others. HER2-directed and Trop-2-directed ADCs are the leading target classes by commercial revenue, with Enhertu generating approximately USD 3.75 billion in 2024 revenue according to Roots Analysis (2026).
Bunce points to Novartis’s approximately USD 12 billion acquisition of Avidity Biosciences as further evidence of the sector’s commercial momentum and the strategic value being placed on companies with deep AOC and ADC expertise.
How do ADCs work?
The mechanism of action for ADCs involves several key steps, each critical to their therapeutic efficacy:
1. Targeted Binding: The monoclonal antibody component of the ADC selectively binds to specific antigens overexpressed on the surface of cancer cells. This targeting mechanism is crucial for the precision of ADC therapy.
2. Internalisation: Once bound to the target antigen, the ADC-antigen complex is internalised into the cancer cell through endocytosis. This process effectively delivers the entire ADC inside the cell.
3. Lysosomal Processing: Inside the cell, the ADC-antigen complex is typically trafficked to lysosomes, where the acidic environment and specific enzymes begin to break down the complex.
4. Payload Release: The linker, designed to be stable in circulation but labile under specific intracellular conditions, is cleaved. This releases the cytotoxic payload within the cancer cell.
5. Cell Death: The free cytotoxic drug then exerts its cell-killing effects, typically by disrupting critical cellular processes such as DNA replication or microtubule assembly, leading to apoptosis of the cancer cell.
6. Bystander Effect: In some cases, depending on the nature of the payload and linker, the released cytotoxic drug may also diffuse into neighbouring cells, potentially killing nearby cancer cells that may not express the target antigen.
This multi-step process allows ADCs to deliver potent cytotoxic agents specifically to cancer cells, potentially maximising efficacy whilst minimising systemic toxicity.
ADC Manufacturing Growth Drivers and Inhibitors
Primary growth drivers include the expanding clinical pipeline, sustained commercial revenue from approved products, increasing R&D investment from both large pharma and emerging biotech, and the emergence of next-generation ADC technologies — including site-specific conjugation, bispecific ADCs, and novel payload classes — that demand more advanced CDMO platforms.
Bunce’s perspective from inside the CDMO space reinforces the opportunity for CDMOs that have built deep scientific foundations in complex modalities, rather than chasing volume in commodity biologics segments. As he frames it, the availability of CDMOs that genuinely understand protein engineering, conjugation technologies, and next-generation ADC formats is far more limited than general-purpose biologics capacity — and that scarcity is what positions specialist CDMOs as strategic partners rather than commodity suppliers.
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- High capital requirements for ADC manufacturing infrastructure.
- Significant investment needed to build and validate HPAPI-capable ADC facilities.
- Limited global capacity for specialized linker-payload synthesis.
- Lengthy and complex technology transfer processes.
- Regulatory complexity arising from ADCs combining:
- Biologic components
- Small-molecule payloads
- Combination product requirements
- Stringent containment, safety, and quality requirements that increase operational costs.
CDMO Outsourcing for ADC Antibody Drug Conjugate Manufacturing
Selecting the right ADC CDMO partner requires evaluating capabilities across an unusually broad technical spectrum — biologic antibody production, HPAPI chemistry, conjugation science, ADC-specific analytical characterization, and aseptic drug product fill-finish — ideally within a single, harmonized quality system. The scarcity of CDMOs with validated, inspected experience across all these disciplines makes due diligence especially critical for sponsors at every stage of development.
A recurring theme in conversations with specialist CDMO leaders is that the best partnerships are built on technical alignment and flexibility, not generic capability claims. Bunce describes Abzena’s approach as deliberately sponsor-centric, shaped around the specific development stage and organizational needs of each client:
“We don’t expect our customers to fit into how we work. We understand their pain points. We understand what they need to do to go through those value inflection points, and we tailor our services and expertise to fit into that.”
— Campbell Bunce, CSO, Abzena
This principle of tailored engagement applies equally to how sponsors should approach CDMO selection. ADC outsourcing involves decision points that do not arise in conventional biologic or small molecule programs. Sponsors must determine whether to engage a single integrated CDMO for end-to-end services or manage a specialist network — one for antibody production, one for linker-payload synthesis, and a third for conjugation and drug product manufacturing. Each model carries distinct risk profiles for quality, timeline, and supply chain continuity.
The US Capacity Gap: A Structural Challenge
One of the most significant near-term constraints for ADC programs — particularly those with US commercial ambitions or on-shoring requirements — is the limited number of qualified ADC manufacturers operating domestically. Bunce describes the current US landscape with characteristic directness: the geopolitical push for on-shoring is generating demand that the existing US CDMO infrastructure was not built to absorb.
“From a geopolitical perspective, there’s a lot of activity around on-shoring manufacturing in the US for obvious reasons. The demand there is super exciting, and we need to respond to that. There aren’t that many manufacturers of ADCs in the US.”— Campbell Bunce
This capacity gap has practical implications for sponsors planning US commercial supply strategies. Programs that assume domestic ADC manufacturing capacity will simply be available when needed — without early engagement, capacity reservation, and structured technology transfer timelines — are likely to encounter supply chain risk as commercial launch approaches. Bunce describes Abzena’s current clients as actively pushing the company toward Phase III and commercial-scale capabilities at both biologics and bioconjugate sites, with recent facility audits at the San Diego site progressing positively toward that goal.
Key CDMO Selection Criteria for ADC Manufacturing
- HPAPI containment capability: Validated OEB classification and demonstrated containment performance to the OEL required by the specific payload, supported by negative-pressure isolators, closed systems, and continuous environmental monitoring.
- Conjugation platform breadth: Experience with both cleavable and non-cleavable linker chemistries, stochastic and site-specific conjugation methods, and DAR control strategies — with evidence across multiple completed GMP campaigns, not just process development.
- Integrated biologic capability: In-house or closely coordinated antibody upstream and downstream manufacturing, enabling seamless technology transfer and minimizing inter-site quality interfaces.
- ADC-specific analytical characterization: In-house methods for HIC-HPLC DAR distribution, SEC aggregation, mass spectrometry payload identification, and stability-indicating assays required for IND/BLA filings.
- Regulatory track record: A documented history of FDA, EMA, and relevant regional GMP inspections at the conjugation and drug product facilities, with no unresolved critical or major observations.
- Scale flexibility: Demonstrated ability to support clinical-stage campaigns and a contractually supported path to commercial-scale supply within the sponsor’s projected timeline.
- Quality system integration: A single, harmonized quality management system across the ADC process chain, with clear deviation management, change control, and batch release accountability.
- Supply chain resilience for controlled payloads: Established supplier relationships and inventory strategies for highly restricted cytotoxic intermediates.
Red Flags When Evaluating ADC CDMOs
A lack of dedicated, purpose-built ADC containment infrastructure — as opposed to shared HPAPI suites adapted for conjugation — raises meaningful operational and safety risk. CDMOs unable to provide direct references from completed ADC GMP campaigns should be evaluated with caution. Gaps in analytical capability requiring systematic third-party outsourcing introduce additional quality interfaces and timeline risk.
Bunce’s observation on transparency in CDMO commercial models is also relevant to due diligence. He describes one structural red flag in the CDMO space as business models built around royalties and complex licensing structures that obscure the true cost and terms of the partnership — what he characterizes as common ‘smoke and mirrors’ in cell line development and platform licensing. Sponsors should probe CDMO pricing models carefully for embedded complexity that adds cost and IP encumbrance to their programs.
“It’s important to keep it as clean and transparent as possible, so that customers know what they’re paying and what they’re going to get. We keep it so there’s no complexity, and it’s one and done.”— Campbell Bunce, CSO, Abzena
5 Questions to Ask Shortlisted ADC CDMOs
- Can you provide examples of completed GMP conjugation campaigns for approved or clinical-stage ADCs, and are sponsor references available from those programs?
- What is your validated containment capability at each step of the ADC process, and how is containment performance monitored and reported during manufacturing campaigns?
- How do you manage DAR control and batch-to-batch consistency, and what is your out-of-specification rate for DAR distribution over the last 12 months of campaigns?
- What is your current conjugation suite utilization rate and firm capacity availability over the next 18-36 months, and what contractual protections exist for capacity reservation?
- How is your pricing structured — are there royalties, milestone fees, or licensing obligations embedded in your platform or cell line development agreements that will carry through to commercial supply?
Antibody-Oligonucleotide Conjugates (AOCs): Emerging CDMO Considerations
Antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates (AOCs) are a next-generation bioconjugate modality that pairs the cell-targeting precision of monoclonal antibodies with the gene-regulatory power of oligonucleotide payloads — including siRNA, antisense oligonucleotides, and splice-switching oligos. As AOC programs move from discovery into clinical development, they are placing entirely new demands on the CDMO ecosystem, requiring integration of two historically separate manufacturing disciplines under a single quality system.
The global AOC therapeutics market was valued at approximately USD 3.42 billion in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 5.26 billion by 2030 at a CAGR of 8.89%, according to Research and Markets (2026). The dedicated AOC CDMO services market reached approximately USD 455 million in 2026 and is forecast to grow at a CAGR of 8.36% through 2032. Neuromuscular diseases, oncology, and CNS disorders are the leading therapeutic focus areas, with Avidity Biosciences’ AOC 1001 for Duchenne muscular dystrophy among the most clinically advanced programs in the space.
The AOC modality sits at the intersection of Abzena’s stated strategic priorities — and Bunce explicitly identifies it alongside ADCs as an area where the company has invested deeply in both science and manufacturing capability. His framing underscores why AOC CDMO services require a fundamentally different level of platform depth than conventional biologics CDMOs can offer:
“When it comes to ADCs and antibody-oligonucleotide conjugates in particular, we are at the forefront of the science and technology required to design, develop, and manufacture those.” — Campbell Bunce, CSO, Abzena
Bunce also notes that Abzena is leveraging existing US facility space to create optionality for AOC conjugation activities — particularly for non-toxic oligonucleotide payloads that do not require cytotoxic containment infrastructure. This reflects a broader CDMO trend: the infrastructure investment required for AOC manufacturing is more accessible than that required for cytotoxic ADC payloads, but the scientific and analytical complexity remains substantial.
How AOC Manufacturing Differs from ADC CDMO Services
Manufacturing an AOC requires combining oligonucleotide synthesis — a chemistry-based process with its own GMP infrastructure, analytical methods, and sequence-specific impurity profiles — with biologic antibody production and the conjugation chemistry that links the two. Unlike ADC payloads, oligonucleotide payloads are not classified as HPAPIs and do not require cytotoxic containment. However, they introduce distinct challenges: oligonucleotides are structurally sensitive, requiring high-resolution analytical methods — including mass spectrometry-based sequence confirmation — that are different from those used in conventional small molecule or biologic manufacturing.
Conjugate heterogeneity — the distribution of oligonucleotide molecules per antibody, analogous to DAR in ADCs — is an evolving critical quality attribute with regulatory expectations still maturing. Endosomal escape, intracellular delivery, and oligonucleotide stability within the target cell environment are active areas of formulation and linker engineering, meaning CDMOs with platform experience in click chemistry and pH-sensitive linkers carry a meaningful technical advantage.
Key CDMO Considerations for AOC Manufacturing
Sponsors evaluating AOC CDMOs should assess integrated oligonucleotide synthesis capability (or tightly validated GMP oligonucleotide supply), conjugation chemistry platform experience, and a comprehensive analytical package capable of characterizing both antibody and oligonucleotide components of the final construct. The ability to manage a quality system bridging two historically separate regulatory paradigms — biologics and oligonucleotide drugs — is a key differentiator. Regulatory readiness is a particular priority: AOC-specific guidance is still evolving, and CDMOs with proactive regulatory affairs capabilities and prior experience presenting novel bioconjugate data packages to FDA and EMA will be better positioned to support IND and BLA interactions.
Radionuclide-Drug Conjugates (RDCs): CDMO Manufacturing Considerations
Radionuclide-drug conjugates (RDCs) are targeted radiotherapeutics that pair a tumor-seeking ligand — a small molecule, peptide, or antibody — with a radioactive isotope to deliver localized radiation directly to cancer cells. Manufacturing RDCs introduces challenges absent from all other bioconjugate modalities: the handling of radioactive materials under GMP conditions within purpose-built hot-cell infrastructure, with supply chains dependent on isotopes with half-lives measured in days or hours.
The global RDC therapeutics market was valued at approximately USD 3.58 billion in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 8.87 billion by 2034 at a CAGR of 10.54%, according to Towards Healthcare (2025). The broader radiopharmaceutical CDMO market reached USD 3.57 billion in 2026 and is forecast to expand to USD 5.82 billion by 2031 at a CAGR of 9.19%, according to Mordor Intelligence (2026). The commercial success of lutetium-177 labeled therapies — Novartis’s Lutathera and Pluvicto — has validated RDC manufacturing outsourcing as a strategic commercial model and triggered a wave of new CDMO capacity investment.
How RDC Manufacturing Differs from ADC CDMO Services
RDC manufacturing shares the general conjugate architecture concept with ADCs — a targeting ligand, a linker, and a cytotoxic payload — but substitutes a radioactive isotope for the chemical cytotoxin. Production must occur in licensed radiopharmaceutical facilities equipped with shielded hot cells, specialized ventilation systems, radiation monitoring, and radioactive waste management infrastructure. These requirements add significant capital cost and regulatory complexity to CDMO qualification.
The half-life challenge is unique to this modality. The most clinically advanced therapeutic isotopes — lutetium-177 (T½ ~6.6 days) and actinium-225 (T½ ~10 days) — decay rapidly, requiring manufacturing facilities to be geographically proximate to treatment centers. This has driven significant regional manufacturing investment and shaped the competitive landscape differently from other bioconjugate CDMOs. As Mordor Intelligence (2026) notes, sponsors now routinely reserve GMP capacity two years ahead, given tightening availability at dual-licensed production sites.
Alpha-emitting isotopes such as actinium-225 present additional containment challenges beyond beta emitters like lutetium-177. Niowave’s 2025 groundbreaking on a USD 75 million actinium-225 production facility in Lansing, Michigan — expanding domestic US supply of this critical isotope — illustrates the upstream supply chain investment being made to support growing RDC CDMO demand.
Key CDMO Considerations for RDC Manufacturing
Selecting a CDMO for RDC development and manufacturing requires evaluation across criteria that do not apply to other bioconjugate modalities. A radiopharmaceutical manufacturing license from the relevant national authority is a non-negotiable baseline. Hot-cell capacity and the containment rating appropriate for the specific isotope must be confirmed early, as must isotope supply chain security — CDMOs with long-term isotope supply agreements or vertical integration with isotope producers offer materially lower supply chain risk. Eckert & Ziegler’s March 2025 deal with Actinium Pharmaceuticals for actinium-225 supply illustrates the strategic importance of isotope contract security in this space (Mordor Intelligence, 2026).
- Radiopharmaceutical manufacturing license: Confirmed regulatory authority authorization to handle, process, and release GMP therapeutic radioisotopes.
- Hot-cell capacity and emitter classification: Infrastructure validated for beta and/or alpha emitters, with capacity rated for the specific isotope being processed.
- Isotope supply chain security: Long-term agreements or vertical integration with qualified isotope producers, covering clinical and commercial supply scenarios.
- Geographic distribution proximity: Facility location in relation to target treatment centers, to minimize product decay during cold-chain distribution.
- GMP radiochemistry track record: Documented regulatory inspection history for the radiopharmaceutical manufacturing suite, covering FDA and relevant regional authorities.
- Integrated theranostics capability: For programs combining diagnostic and therapeutic applications, CDMO experience in theranostic pair manufacturing is increasingly valued.
Key Takeaways: Bioconjugate CDMO Manufacturing in 2026
The bioconjugate CDMO landscape in 2026 encompasses three distinct but related modalities — ADCs, AOCs, and RDCs — each growing rapidly, each presenting unique manufacturing challenges, and each placing different demands on sponsor outsourcing strategy. ADC CDMO manufacturing remains the dominant and most mature segment, with the global ADC CDMO market on a trajectory from USD 11.08 billion in 2026 to nearly USD 30 billion by 2035. AOCs are entering clinical validation with a dual-discipline manufacturing requirement not previously encountered in biologic or oligonucleotide programs individually. RDCs are scaling rapidly on the commercial success of lutetium-177 therapies, with isotope supply and hot-cell infrastructure as defining capacity constraints.
The perspective of experienced CDMO leaders underscores how quickly this landscape is moving — and how important it is to work with partners who have built ahead of the curve. As Bunce frames it, the challenge for CDMOs in this space is maintaining the forward momentum needed to keep pace with an exceptionally fast-moving field:
“Stay flexible, stay responsive. Look to get that balance right between a platform that can be modified slightly to suit some of the different challenges that come along.” — Campbell Bunce, CSO, Abzena
Across all three modalities, the principle of modality-specific CDMO due diligence applies without exception. Generic biologic or HPAPI manufacturing experience does not qualify a CDMO for ADC conjugation, AOC bioconjugation, or radiopharmaceutical production. Sponsors who define selection criteria specific to their modality — and who invest in rigorous technical and regulatory qualification audits before contract award — will be best positioned to build resilient, scalable manufacturing supply chains as their programs advance toward commercialization.
Frequently Asked Questions About ADC Antibody Drug Conjugate CDMO Manufacturing
What is an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC)?
An antibody-drug conjugate is a targeted biopharmaceutical consisting of a monoclonal antibody chemically linked to a cytotoxic small-molecule drug via a chemical linker. The antibody selectively binds to a cancer-cell surface antigen, delivering the cytotoxic payload directly to the tumor while minimizing systemic toxicity. ADCs combine the specificity of biologics with the potency of small-molecule chemotherapy.
What CDMOs specialize in ADC manufacturing?
A growing number of CDMOs offer ADC manufacturing services, ranging from integrated providers capable of antibody production, linker-payload synthesis, conjugation, and fill-finish under a single quality system, to specialists in individual steps. Key differentiators include containment capability, conjugation platform breadth, regulatory inspection track record at the conjugation facility, and commercial-scale capacity. PharmaSource maintains a continuously updated directory of qualified ADC CDMO partners searchable by capability, capacity, and geography.
What makes ADC manufacturing complex?
ADC manufacturing is technically complex because it requires combining biologic manufacturing (antibody), high-potency small-molecule chemistry (payload and linker), and aseptic drug product formulation within a single integrated GMP workflow. ADC payloads can have occupational exposure limits as low as 1 ng/m³, requiring purpose-built containment infrastructure. Controlling DAR distribution and managing multi-step conjugation chemistry at commercial scale adds further process development complexity.
What is the ADC CDMO market size in 2026?
The global ADC CMO and CDMO market reached approximately USD 11.08 billion in 2026 and is projected to grow to approximately USD 29.65 billion by 2035 at a CAGR of 11.56%, according to Towards Healthcare (2026). The broader ADC therapeutics market was approximately USD 15.61 billion in 2025 and is forecast to exceed USD 71 billion by 2031 according to Mordor Intelligence (2026).
What GMP requirements apply to ADC manufacturing?
ADC manufacturing must satisfy FDA cGMP, EMA GMP, and applicable regional frameworks across all process steps, simultaneously addressing biologic, HPAPI, and sterile injectable drug product requirements. FDA and EMA GMP guidelines cover cross-contamination prevention, cleaning validation, equipment qualification, personnel containment protocols, and aseptic processing. Occupational safety standards including OHSMS 18001 and ISO 14001 also apply throughout the ADC manufacturing process.
How do I choose a CDMO for ADC development and manufacturing?
Evaluating an ADC CDMO requires assessment of containment capability validated for the specific payload OEB/OEL, conjugation platform experience across relevant linker chemistries and DAR control strategies, in-house biologic manufacturing, ADC-specific analytical capabilities, GMP inspection history at the conjugation suite, scale flexibility from clinical to commercial, supply chain resilience for controlled cytotoxic intermediates, and transparent, royalty-free commercial terms. Due diligence should include reference checks from prior ADC campaigns and direct qualification audits of the conjugation facility.
